Allum Wheels

The contributions of ancient Arabian and Egyptian scientists in the development of physics and technology

Md. Wasim Aktar

Deptt. of emerald. Chemicals, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India.

Scientists have studied Islam deeply issues fundamental physics. For example, Ibn Sina made a thorough study of phenomena such as force, motion, light, heat, vacuum, etc. has been great progress made in theoretical and applied mechanics. A useful work has been done in the field of mechanics in the wheel shaft, lever, pulley, inclined plane, windmill, water wheel, gears, etc. The physicist and astronomer al-Khazini wrote a book on mechanics, hydrostatics and physics, called Kitab Mizan al-Hikma (Book of the balance of wisdom), which is most notable medieval work on these issues. Theory gives a force of attraction of the earth (gravity) the universal force that is directed toward the center of the universe, which was at the time of being the center of the earth. Includes tables of specific gravity of many liquids and solids (based on the work of Al-Biruni), and a history of matter, the weight of air, observations on the capillary, using the hydrometer to measure density and appreciation The liquid temperature, the theory of the lever, the application of the balance of the equalization and timing. Sample Analysis and this book have been published in Arabic and English. (1)
In another book on the balance Khazini stresses the need to eliminate, as far as possible influences of the temperature variation during the weighing. When al-Khazini studies are considered the other, seems to be a precursor to Galileo.
Al-Khazini full name was Abu Abd al-Fath '-Rahman al-Mansur al-Khazini (or al-Khazin). He lived about 1115-1121. He was a Greek (Rumi) slave. His teacher Al-Ali Al-Khazin Marwazi ready for good education, scientific and philosophical self in Marw. Al-Khazin compiled astronomical tables called Al-Zij Al-Mu'tabar Sinjari (estimated Sinjaric tables) have been named Ibn Ibn Sinjar Malikshah Alp Arsalan, and more later governor of Khorasan, Sultan (1097-98 to 1157-58). They give the position of stars for the year 1115-1116.
Before Khazini Al-Umar al-Khayyam made more work on balance. Ibn Sina and al-Razi contributed to the theory of equilibrium. Banu Musa (son of Musa), which flourished during the reign of Caliph al-Mamun, wrote many works mechanically. An important paper on the balance Qarastun Farastün called "or" attributed to them. Al-Razi (OC 923-24) did research on the gravity specifically through the hydrostatic balance. This balance was called al-Al-Mizan tabii (physical balance). (2)
Muhammad Ali Ibn Rustam ibn al-Khorasani was a famous clockmaker and, therefore, is called Al-Sa'ati (watchmaker). Between 1146 and 1169, he built a clock placed in the Bab Jairün. (often called "Bab al-Sa'ah the door of the clock). Al-Sa'ati remained in office until his death at his watch in 1184-85. (3)
Another engineer of the 13th century Muslim was Ismail Abu-Isa ibn Razzaz (son of commercial rice) Badi'al al-Zaman-Jazari. It was sponsored 577-578 to 601-602 AH 1181-1182 to 1205-1206 BC by the leaders of Diyar Urtuqid Bakr, a district of Al-Jazeera. He wrote a treatise on geometric knowledge of mechanical devices called al-Kitab fi al-Hiyal Ma'rifat Handsiyyah, Urtuqid was devoted to the Nasir al-Din Mahmud (reigned from 1200 to 1222). These are mainly hydraulics (elepsydras, fountains, etc.). This important work is interesting from a technical standpoint, and represents the best work of Arabic in applied mechanics. It is divided into six parts. The first part dealing with various types like elepsydras indicating whether temporary or hours is more important. Muslims divided the day into twenty-four equal hours. But they adopted another type of division. It divides the day and night every twelve hours in duration varies according to season. That kind of hours were also used by Christians in Europe, for example, Italy, until the mid 18th century.
The book was translated into German, and comments on this subject have been written well. (4)
Ridwan Al are Sa'ati watch repaired and improved and also has written a book describing their construction and use. This book is an important source for the study of early Muslim watches. Ridwan was an engineer, doctor and poet, and had knowledge of literature and music. He played the flute. Originally belonged to Khorasan. This has been appointed by the Prince-Ayoubi Wazir and his brother Faiz Isa Ibrahim al-Muazzam. Ridwan also wrote a supplement to the treatise of Ibn Sina in grapes, and commentary on the Qanun (Canon). (5)
Qaisar Ibn Abu al-Qasim, Egyptian mathematician, astronomer (d. 1251 BC) was a celestial globe. Probably the improvements in water wheels and water mills. These improved varieties of water, the wheels are still visible on the Orontes, and are among the glories of Hama. These water wheels were built (Naura) for al-Muzaffar al-Taqi al-Din Mahmud, the ruler Hama in 1229 to 1244 AC (6)
The philosopher Abu Nasr al-Farabi has refuted the existence of a vacuum. He wrote a remarkable essay on the elasticity of air. This is of original research work. (7)
Muslim scholars have an interest in determining the specific gravity of different substances. Ali Sanad ibn ' a scholar of the ninth century, made investigations on specific gravity. Al-Biruni determine the specific gravity of 18 precious stones and metals. Ibn Sina and al-Razi has also research on this topic.
Ibn Yunus (1009 † AC) applied the pendulum to measure time. Al-Biruni developed a time machine based on the timing Roman. It was built for use in the mosque of Ghazni. However, the imam of the mosque has denied saying that work was based on non-Muslims. For al-Biruni was very upset. He said that the determination of time is purely secular. It is therefore of little value if it is based on a calendar Muslim or non Muslim. Only comfort should be taken into account.

Al-Biruni made reference to a particular type of wells that are obtained by drilling into the earth at this level of water is subjected to hydrostatic pressure in this case because the water pressure is drawn as in natural sources. He correctly explains the action of these wells by the principle of communicating vessels. (8)
Muslims have developed techniques of swimming. They built the hot tub, steam bath called Hammam (from the Arabic root meaning Hamm heat). When the Crusaders came from Europe to East and experience the comfort of these baths have been introduced in their own country.
The Muslims were the first to implement the Directive on the property of the magnetic needle to determine the direction of travel during the voyage at sea. The Chinese were the first to discover this property. Maritime trade between Muslims gave much importance to the southern tip of the needle pointing north, as is done today. This is probably because in some places as Syria and Asia Minor at the southern end was roughly towards Mecca. Thus, the tip of the needle gives the general direction of the qibla. In the West, the compass, to all, used by Italian sailors. Some Muslims have referred the compass in his writings. For example, Bailak al-Qabajaqi in his book entitled Al-Kanz AHJAR describes the use of a variable of the compass in the crowd for him to L242-43. (9)
"Muslims also were the first to invent guns and cannons and use of explosives in them. The purpose of this invention was to launch balls at the enemy at long range. The Chinese have used sodium nitrate only. But the penetrating power of explosives was identified and used only by Muslims. Historians tend to write the first time that firearms were used in the war of Cressi, but from the writings of many Muslims, reveals that the weapons had been used for some time. In one of these writings is a story that any site designated official Ya'qub in 602 AH (1205 AC) Mehdra an African city that was under the control of rebel leader and attacked the walls with the help of sensors and guns. Of all the machines, which took a series of rain of boulders and fire balls.
The instruction given by Ibn Khaldun in his history of the Berbers "also demonstrates the use of firearms during the war. He writes: "Abu Yusef, Sultan of Morocco at the site 672 AH (1273 AC) in the city of Sijilmassa. The instruments installed in front of besieging the city. These instruments consisted Manjneeq, Urawa and Hamdan with throwing pieces of iron. These bits are filled in the picture of Hamdan, and stored explosives were burned behind them. Its effect was strange and results could be called a law of God. A day with the help of a stone thrown by Manjneeq part of the wall fell, then the attack was carried out in the city. (10)
Muslims have developed the science of optics. Ibn al-Haytham (Latin Alhazen) made an important contribution to this science. Indeed modern optics began with him. Before Ibn Al-Haitham is believed by the Greek, Roman and Muslim scientists that the rays are emitted from the eyes of the objects seen. Plato suggested that there was another series of radiation emitted by the object seen. Alexandrians believed that vision is in the eye lens. Ibn Sina and al-Biruni also estimates that the radius is increased from the object in view. Aristotle's ideas were very close to modern design. The atomistic atomical propose a theory. Hunayn Ibn Ishaq in his book entitled "Questions relating to save the eye" theory has been a bit of Plato. In his view, the target was the central organ of vision. Both the strength of the visual brain and the image of the object from abroad were received in the lens. Al-Razi, also, in his monograph on the nature of vision have shown that eyes do not shine, no light. (11)
Ibn al-Haitham has changed the traditional view by presenting the theory that the objects are seen by rays passing of them in sight, and not the reverse process. Most of his successors do not agree with your point of view, but Al-Biruni, Ibn Sina and totally independently agree with him. Ibn al-Haitham solve a series of optical problems based on mathematical knowledge of his time.
Ibn al-Haitham treated with a medley issues like the structure of the eye, optical illusion, perspective, binocular vision, vision outlines, shadows and colors catoptrics age diopters and new developments, the camera obscura, a problem of Alhazen, mirages, comets, the Milky Way arches in the sky, halos, etc.
Ibn al-Haitham search conducted catoptrics contains the problem known problem of Alhazen. It is as follows: —
"Two points in the plane of a circle to draw lines meeting at a point on the circumference and making equal angles with the normal to this point. "This leads to an equation of fourth grade. Ibn al-Haitham solved using hyperbola intersecting a circle. It also decided that it called al-Mahani's cubic equation.
Ibn al-Haitham has shown a marked increase in the techniques experimental. He did research on spherical surfaces and parabolic mirrors, spherical aberration and the diopter. He noted that the relationship between the angles of incidence and reflection are kept constant. He described the power of a magnifying glass and studied atmospheric refraction. He said the twilight only ceases or begins when the Sun is 19 degrees below the horizon and tried to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. It gave a better description of eyes and vision. He tried to explain binocular vision, and gave a correct explanation for the apparent increase in size of the sun and moon horizon. He gave the treatment mathematical first camera obscura.
So these are problems that are now under at least seven subjects, including anatomy, physiology, psychology, mathematics, astronomy, physics and meteorology.
The full name is Ibn al-Haytham Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn al-Haitham. He was a native of Basra, and was born in 354 AH (965 AC). He emigrated to Egypt, where he lived until his death. It was a noble person and a genius who had knowledge of many sciences. It was the greatest mathematician of age and one of the largest optical history. He was well versed in medicine and the Arabic language. When Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah who loved philosophy, has heard of Ibn al-Haitham, who had a great desire to see. Al-Hakim has been reported that Ibn al-Haitham revealed that, had it been in Egypt, he could have done something about the river Nile, it will be beneficial in all cases is the water level was high or low. Ibn al-Haitham, the river water was reduced from a high place to lie on the territory of Egypt. Upon hearing this report, al-Hakim has become increasingly fond of the meeting of Ibn al-Haitham. Al-Hakim sent a lot of money for him and persuaded him to come to his court. Ibn al-Haitham was to Egypt. When he came near al-Hakim in Cairo was to meet him. They met in a village near Bab al-Lima (the gate of Cairo). Al-Hakim the honor to him, provided that all facilities, and asked him to fulfill his promise on the Nile A group workers was offered to help carry out his plan. When Ibn al-Haitham was the investigation of the site and arrived at a place called "Janadil '(now called Shalal) Located near Aswan, on high ground, he realized the difficulties encountered. Feeling unable to keep his promise, became a great shame, because fears that al-Hakim and get rid of him, acted like a madman, and remained in a state of insanity for the deaths of al-Hakim. Then she came to and settled in near Qubbah the Jami'ah door of al-Azhar, and settled in writing books. He died in 1038.
Ibn al-Haytham is the author of numerous books. He summarized the works of Aristotle, and wrote commentaries to them. Also summarized many medical works of Galen. His writings on mathematics and physics are 15 and in metaphysics and physics are the number of 44. His books include one on the plants and the other on the properties of simple and compound drugs. (12)
His Kitab al-Manazir (the thesaurus optics) is one of the great classics that have influenced scientific thought for more than six centuries. Latin, Hebrew and Muslim writers such as Roger Bacon, John Peckham, Vitellius Ahmad Ibn Idris al-Qarafi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, Levi Ben Gerson bases its work on this great book.
Ibn Sina made a deep study of light. He noted that if light is emitted by the expulsion of one type of particle by the light source, the speed of light must be finite. (13) Al-Biruni observed that the speed of light is much greater than that of sound. (14)
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi written two books on optics. When one of them has the right-Mabahith In'ikãs fi Al-Shu'a'at wa In'itafiha (research on reflection and refraction of the rays), contains evidence of equal angles of incidence and reflection.
The other is entitled "Kitab al-Tahrir Manazir. In the preface the author states that objects are perceived because the rays of light emanating from them, but it is as if the rays of our eyes. (15)
Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi († 1311) was one of the greatest scientists of all time, presented his views on his work in astronomy optics. In one of these works, titled "Al-Nihaayat Idrak Dirãyat fi al-Aflak (better understanding of the knowledge of the spheres), deliberates on the issues geometrical optics, the nature of vision, and finally, a rainbow. It was the first to give a satisfactory explanation of the rainbow. His explanation of Rainbow is based on his study of the passage of a beam of light through a transparent sphere (the waterfall). He discovered that the bow is formed when the rays are refracted reflected twice and sometimes (or robe in the case of a second of arc) in the humid atmosphere. (16)
Another important physicist and mathematician of the 14th century, was Kamal al-Din Abu al-Hassan al-Faris. He wrote a book entitled 'Al-Tanqih Manazir (optical correction), which is a comment and the original development of Ibn Haitham al-Kitab al-Manazir (Book of optics). It covers not only physically and physiologically, but also the meteorological point of view and many others. Includes comments on the prospect of the series, color effects, etc.
Kamal al-Din suggested the use of hyperbolic lenses to avoid spherical aberration. He account the refraction of light. According to George Sarton, this account shows the following facts: the speed of light is finite, but very large, the speed of light in different media is inversely proportional to the optical density (not the same as the density of material). The second of these facts seems to be a sketch of the wave theory of light against the theory of particles.
Kamal al-Din made a series of experiments in the darkroom and the best use initiated by Ibn al-Haitham. This has proved that images obtained on a screen in a dark room with light rays passing through a narrow hole, independent of how the ho1e, and the hole, more pictures. Also been shown that images of many objects are trained separately on the screen, but the images were reversed and instructions. With the help of the camera, was observed eclipses and movements of clouds and birds. (17)
Al-Hasan al-Rammah (the Lancer) Najm al-Din al-Ahadab (the hunchback) writes about military affairs. It flourished in Syria. He wrote two treatises on horsemanship and the art of war (1), Kitab al-Furusiyah wa Al-Munasab Harbiyah (Riding and ruses of war), (2) Al-wa Nihaayat Su'ul 'Umniya fi Al-Al-Ta'allum A'mal Furusiyah.
The book first deals with military matters, such as the military operation, using spears, bows, siege engines, and method of control at sea and the communication of fire, etc Contains several recipes pyrotechnic, Al-Hasan considers substantia nitrate of pyrotechnics. He explained the methods of preparation and purification through crystallization of potassium and repeatedly.
According to George Sarton, who is more important than it may seem, the impurities of nitrate are hygroscopic and therefore tend to destroy its value. To find the salt and its use is one thing, to purify it was another. (18)
The Muslims have improved the art of shipbuilding, has taught the sailors of the Mediterranean to construct lighter boats or ships (Garafa), for caulking boats with tar is still unknown in the Romance languages by the Arabic name gatra (FR tar,. Caltrame)-to handle the sails and ropes (habl Ar). (19)

References: —
1. A1-Khazini, 'Abd al-Rahman, Mizan al-Hikma, Hyderabad Deccan, 1359 AH pp. 1-170.
2. Al-Qift, Ali Ibn Yusuf, Tarikh-Hukam, Leipzig, 1903, p. 271.
3. Sarton, George, Introduction to the History of Science, Carneige Institution of Washington, 1951, vol. I, p. 632.
4. Ibid, pp. 631.
5. Ibid., 632.
6. Ibid., Vol II, Part II, p. 623.
7. Al-Qift, op. cit. 277.
8. Sarton, op. cit., vol. I, p. 707.
9. Ibid., Vol II, Part I, p. 24.
10. Balgirami, Ali, tamaddun-e-Arab (translation Urdu of a French book by Lebon), Hyderabad Deccan, p. 441.
11. Ibid., Vol I, p. 609.
12. Ibid, pp. 721.
13 Isma'il Al-Baghdadi Basha, Al-Arifin Hadiyyah, Istanbul, 1951, vol. II, p. 66.
14. Sarton, op., P. 707.
15. Ibid, pp. 709-713.
16. Ibid. vol. II, Part II, p. 1009.
17. Ibid, pp. 1018.
18. Ibid., Vol III, Part I, p. 707. Al-Farisi, Kamal al-Din al-Tãnqih Manazir, Decean Hyderabad, India.
19. Op Sarton. cit., vol. II, Part II, p. 1039.
20. Briffault, Robert, The Making of Humanity, Islamic Book Foundation, 1980 p. 205.

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